A grammar for reading and writing

able evidence. Weak writers can achieve an immediate gain in the level of thought of their writing by taking advantages of the opportunities for adding pre- and post-modifiers. For writers, this model is a reminder of the opportunity to extend, limit, or otherwise shape a specific idea. You can greatly increase the sophistication and depth of thought of your work by taking advantage of these pre- and post-modifier "slots". Having written a statement, you might go back in editing to see how you can further shape your thoughts by making use of these slots. The Constitution is the nation’s charter, and lawmakers should resist the temptation to push for amendments every time an election year rolls around. Notice how much richer the next sentence is (additional modifiers in bold face) . The Constitution of the United States is the nation’s bedrock charter, and devoted lawmakers sworn to uphold it should resist the dangerous temptation to push for pandering amendments every time an election year rolls around. (1) Janet Maslin, `When Phrases That Flatter Are Misused,’ The New YorkTimes , Arts & Leisure section, August 23, 1998, p. 9. Sentence and Predicate Modifiers At times when reading, we come away with little, if any, understanding. We see the trees, but not the forest. We may miss the meaning for a number of reasons. We may not know the meaning of certain words or the concepts to which they refer. Even when we understand the words, we may come away with little understanding because the writing itself is particularly complex. In this latter instance, it is often helpful to apply grammatical analysis, to consciously attempt to break the sentence into meaningful units. A Model Of English Sentence Structure All English sentences follow the same basic formula. All speakers of the language are familiar with that formula, and yet this model is rarely if ever taught. (1) The discussion here lays that formula out. The discussion of noun phrases demonstrated the need to recognize grammatical constructions as complete units. There we were concerned with a single grammatical construction irrespective of where it appeared within a sentence. This section looks more broadly at the sentence as a whole. It identifies various positions or slots within the sentence and discusses how constructions appearing within these slots shape the meaning of the sentence as a whole. In so doing, the discussion shows you how to make sense of complex sentences when you come across them in your reading, and how to construct them in your own writing. Simple, Compound, and Complex Sentences Simple sentences contain a subject and predicate--a topic and a statement about that topic. More complicated sentences can be formed by stringing elements of a simple sentences together to make compound sentences or by adding other elements to make a complex sentence . These pages focuss on three ways of expanding a simple sentence into a complex sentence: Sentence Modifiers Predicate Modifers Inserts For background discussion of simple and compound sentences, see Simple Sentences . Review: Sentence and Predicate Modifiers We read all sentences with a dual awareness of both meaning and structure. We break each sentence into meaningful chunks and figure out their grammatical relationships: Recall our three model sentences: 1. The boy ate the apple in the pie. 2. The boy ate the apple in the summer. 3. The boy ate the apple in a hurry. We can now see how we analyze these sentences differently to find meaning. Using the notation above, we now see the following structures: 1. The boy ate the apple in the pie.     *       2. The boy ate the apple [ in the summer. 3. The boy ate the apple { in a hurry } To understand each sentence, we must analyze the relationship of its parts. That process is made easier with a knowledge of and a feeling for the various possible relationships: here noun modifiers, sentence modifiers, and predicate modifiers. Remember the sentence He did not marry her because he loved her. The two meanings stem from two equally legitimate analyses. In the analysis He did not marry her [ because he loved her they are not married. The phrase because he loved her is in the end sentence modifier slot that modifies the remainder of the sentence. We can test this by shifting the final construction from the end to the front slot. He did not marry her because he loved her Because he loved her , he did not marry her Note the addition here of the comma when the front slot is filled. In the analysis He did not marry her because he loved her they still might be married for other reasons. The phrase because he loved her is determined to be in the predicate modifier slot, indicating a reason for marrying. He did not marry her {because he loved her} Examples Other instances of grammatical ambiguity typically appear in headlines, as the following. Lung Cancer in Women Mushrooms We can now read this as a reference to a certain disease Lung Cancer in Women Mushrooms      *       Female mushrooms have cancer! Or as an event Lung Cancer in Women Mushrooms      *      Cancer in women is increasing—obviously the intended meaning!. Analyze the following yourself. ·          Reagan Wins on Budget, But More Lies Ahead ·          Juvenile Court to Try Shooting Defendant ·          Two Sisters Reunited after 18 Years in Checkout Counter ·          Squad Helps Dog Bite Victim ·          Hospitals are Sued by 7 Foot Doctors ·          Killer Sentenced to Die for Second Time in 10 Years Other examples can be found in "The Lower case" section of the Columbia Journalism Review : (5) : Thai Hospital Admits Starving Refugee Babies The Cambodia Daily , 2/26/98 Salad still good after 50 years Tribune-Star (Terra Haute, Ind.) 3/11/98 Transportation department to hold public meetings on I-49 The Times (Shreveport, La.) 3/19/98 MEDIA: Some Fear Coverage Reflects Judgment Los Angeles Times 1/29/98 Can you distinguish between ambiguity of word meaning and grammatical ambiguity? Implications For Reading What does the above analysis do for us? To find meaning in a sentence, we must break it into meaningful parts, and we must understand how those parts are related to each other. When we group words into larger constructions, we accomplish two goals. First. we reduce the complexity of the sentence as a whole into smaller, more manageable parts. In so doing, we group words to identify complete references. The meaning we come away with depends on how we break up (analyze) a sentence. The best strategy is to initially break the sentence into a few parts. Locate a basic simple sentence and identify how any remaining constructions are related to that basic simple sentence. The slot model offers a template for that effort. Earlier we recognized King's full dream. Within the construction defining that dream we can now recognize a time, a location, and an event: one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slaveowners will be able to sit down together at a table of brotherhood. We find a complex sentence consisting of two front sentence modifiers followed by a simple sentence with a predicate modifier at the end one day ] on the red hills of Georgia ] the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slaveowners will be able to sit down together { at a table of brotherhood. Finally, consider the following sentence: When Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee met in the parlor of a modest house at Appomattox Court House, Virginia to work out the terms for the surrender of Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, a great chapter in American life came to a close and a greater chapter began. At first, this appears to be a long and complex sentence. When we draw on the notions reviewed above, however, we see that its structure is really simple. We have a front sentence modifier When Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee met in the parlor of a modest house at Appomattox Court House, Virginia to work out the terms for the surrender of Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, ] a great chapter in American life came to a close and a greater chapter began. followed by a series of simple sentences a great chapter in American life came to a close and a great new chapter began To test this analysis, try shifting the modifier: A great chapter in American life came to a close, and a great new chapter began. [ when Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee met in the parlor of a modest house at Appomattox Court House, Virginia to work out the terms for the surrender of Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. The large construction passes the test for a sentence modifier. While that large construction may be the most interesting piece of the sentence, it is not the most crucial to the meaning. The main idea of the sentence is about great chapter(s) beginning and ending. The large construction does not identify or describe those chapters; it only says when the shift came. Implications For Writing The "slot" model of sentences developed above offers a template into which to fit constructions in the effort to make sense of sentences. The same model offers writers opportunities to qualifying references and ideas in terms of place, quality, time, purpose, type, extent, or conditions. Writing that does not make use of the sentence modifier, predicate modifier, and insert slots can be decidedly childlike in expression and simplistic in thought. (1) The discussion is based on Robert L. Allen, English Grammars and English Grammar , Scribner's, Scribner's, 1972. Out of print. (2) Letter to Editor, The New York Times , May 8, 1998 (Printed May 12, 1998), by Charlton Heston, NRA First Vice-President (3) William H. Dunlop, Letter to the Editor, The New York Times , Austin edition, June 10, 1998, p. A28. (4) Pete Hamill, Twenty Seven Words-The Bloody Problem of the Second Amendment , (Mightywords, 2000), www.mightywords.com, p. 4. (5) The examples from March/April and May/June 1998 issues. Sentence Modifiers The sentence modifier slot holds constructions that modify the remainder of the sentence, much as pre- and post-modifiers modify a central noun in a noun phrase. pre-modifier noun post-modifier ——— ® * ¬ ———— SENTENCE MODIFIER ] subject + predicate [ SENTENCE MODIFIER We shall mark front and end sentence modifiers with the notion front modifier ] ................................ [ end modifier Recall the second model sentence from the set of three at the introduction to this section: 2. The boy ate the apple      [ in the summer. Here the final phrase, in the summer , modifiers the earlier sentence as a whole. It indicates when the boy at the apple. What proof do we have that this last phrase really modifiers the remainder of the sentence as a whole? The proof lies in the fact that the main portion can stand alone as a simple sentence, and The boy ate the apple. the modifier portion of the sentence can be shifted between the front and back without essentially changing the meaning. (Emphasis may change slightly, and there is a stylistic convention of putting short sentence modifiers first.) The boy ate the apple in the summer . In the summer The boy ate the apple. There are, in effect, front and end "slots" that can be filled with comments on the remainder of the sentence. You can, with little trouble imagine all sorts of comments that might be inserted into the sentence modifier slots at the front and end of the sentence. ________________ ] the boy ate the apple [ ________________ Note that in the test for a sentence modifier does not work with the other two of the three sample sentences: 1. * In the pie.         the boy ate the apple. 3. * In a hurry         the boy ate the apple. Here the sentences are clearly incorrect, or at least awkward. We will explain what is happening in the final model sentence in a moment. Grammatical Constructions Filling Sentence Modifier Slots Any slot in a sentence can be described in terms of the position of that slot, the constructions that can fill that slot, and the meaning imparted by construction within that slot. Sentence modifier slots can be filled by anything from a single word, Yesterday, to long phrases. Whenever it rains, After the game was over and we had lost our third game... Because it would be senseless any other way... Content Sentence modifiers typically qualify (in what way, under what conditions), limit, or set conditions or circumstances (for whom, why, when, where), or indicated reasons or conclusions. Punctuation Sentence modifiers generally take a comma when they appear at the front of a sentence and are more than a single word. No comma ever appears before a sentence modifier in the end position. SENTENCE MODIFIER ] , _______________________ [ SENTENCE MODIFIER The comma brackets off the front sentence modifier. Stylistically, shorter constructions appear early, and after a comma; longer one's appear at the end. Tactics and Strategies Some basic tactics and strategies for reading and writing should be apparent. You can make better sense of long and complicated sentence by attempting to recognize sentence modifiers. If a sentence begins with a word like whenever , after , because, or in , the odds are you have a sentence modifier in the front slot. If a sentence begins with the, a, every, or my , that is, with any of the words that commonly begin noun phrases, the odds are that there is no sentence modifier in the front position. But there may still be one in the end position. As a writer, you can shape your thoughts more carefully and specifically by adding sentence modifiers. When or where is this true? Why is this the case? Under what circumstances does the remark apply? Examples Amendment II, U. S. Constitution A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. How should we understand this amendment? Is the right to bear arms a right designed only to assure a well regulated militia, or a broader right? To Charlton Heston, President of the National Rifle Association, the answer is clear: The Founders' intent in framing the Second Amendment is perfectly clear and undeniable. Thomas Jefferson wrote, "No man shall ever be debarred the use of arms." .... Some anti-gun elitists declare this notion outdated. However, many constitutional scholars from this country's most prestigious universities agree that the Founders' intent is clear and irreversible: To "keep and bear arms" is a right for all law-abiding citizens. (2) To William H. Dunlop, the situation is quite different: The words "Second Amendment" and "keep and bear arms" will be bandied about ad infinitum, but just as in the N.R.A.s ads, the full amendment will never be seen or heard. Why not? Because the first half of the amendment's "well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free State" clearly limits the meaning of the second half, 'the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed." (3) Or, in the words of novelist and journalist Pete Hamill, To most literate people, this sentence [the amendment] obviously connects the right to keep and bear arms to the existence of a well-regulated militia. The words seem to say what they do say. That is, the right to keep and bear arms is essential to the existence of a well-regulated militia. (4) This is not the only instance in which a "constitutional comma" matters. During early negotiations the Constitutional Convention of 1787 agreed to include: The Legislature of the United States shall have the power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises. The sentence was later extended to indicate how this money was to be spent The Legislature of the United States shall have the power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare. In the final version a comma was changed to a semicolon. The Legislature of the United States shall have the power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises ; to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare. Examples of sentence modifiers throughout a text are offered in an annotated versiopn of the Text for Discussion: Annotation - Needle Exchange Programs and the Law - Time for a Change. Predicate Modifiers The final phrase in the first of the three sample sentences was seen to involve an extended noun phrase. 1. The boy ate the apple in the pie. ® * ¬ ——— The second involved a sentence modifer. 2. The boy ate the apple      [ in the summer. That leaves the final sample sentence 3. The boy ate the apple in a hurry We quickly see that the final phrase is not part of a noun phrase: * The boy ate the apple in a hurry That is, the final phrase does not help describe the apple. And we recognize that the final phrase cannot shift from one end to the other like a sentence modifier. The boy ate the apple        in a hurry *In a hurry               the boy ate the apple. The result of the shift is somewhat awkward. And we recognize that the phrase does not really say something about the complete remaining sentence. It does not comment on the fact that the boy ate the apple so much as on how he ate the apple. That is, it comments on the predicate. The boy ate the apple in a hurry In a hurry modifies the action, or, in more formal terms, the predicate. A construction in the predicate modifier slot modifies how the action took place, often with adverbs (such as, slowly) but also with prepositional phrases, as in the sentence above. Here we use curly parentheses to mark predicate modifiers. 3. The boy ate the apple { in a hurry } From the above, we have identified one more slot within sentences, the predicate modifier. Predicate modifiers appear at the end of sentences, but within the boundary of any final sentence modifier. ] SUBJECT PREDICATE { PREDICATE MODIFIER } [ The test of a predicate modifier is that it is not part of a noun phrase, and that it is not a sentence modifier, i.e., that it does not shift from end to front ( or it would not be a predicate modifier, but a sentence modifier), and , finally, that it comments on the predicate, on how, or why, or when an action occurred. Constructions Filling the Predicate Modifier Slot Predicate modifier slots can be filled by anything from a single word, Quickly, or a phrase. With gusto Content Predicate modifiers typically qualify the predicate (in what way or manner) limit or set conditions or circumstances on the predicate (for whom, when, where) indicated reasons or conditions (why) indicate manner, time, or conditions on the predicate, Predicate modifiers always comment on the action or predicate, not on the thought of the sentence as a whole. Punctuation A comma never separates a predicate modifier from the predicate itself. (If a comma occurs between the predicate and predicate modifier, it usually signals the presence of an insert [see Inserts ) Simple Sentences: Subject and Predicate Think of baby sentences: Johnny hungry. Cat run. English sentences are composed of a topic and something said about that topic, commonly referred to as the subject and predicate. SENTENCE = SUBJECT + PREDICATE The subject and predicate are often described as a topic and a comment, what is being talked about (the subject) and what is being said about it (the predicate). Each of these elements is characterized by a combination of three elements or perspectives: ·          a position or slot within a sentence ·          a certain form or type of grammatical construction ·          a certain meaning Thus the subject of a sentence typically ·          occurs at the beginning of the sentence (position), ·          consists of a noun phrase (form), and ·          indicates the topic of the discussion (meaning). The predicate ·          follows the subject, ·          starts with a verb indicating an action or state of being, and ·          conveys a thought about the subject. The surest test of the complete subject in a sentence is to turn a statement into a yes/no question. All men are created equal. Make a yes/no question Are all men created equal. The subject ( all men ) is the part around which the initial question word ( are ) moves. Are All men are created equal. ________ With some sentences you have to make the verb emphatic to form a question—for example, change ran into did run —to pick up the part of the verb that moves forward to make the question. He ran to the store. He did run to the store. Did he run to the store?. Here the verb did moves around the subject He. A subject and predicate, together, form a simple sentence. As used here, the term "simple" refers to the basic structure of a sentence. Simple sentences can be short or long, and can express simple or complex thoughts and may contain complex constructions, but the basic structure of the sentence is simple. Here are two simple sentences: John ate spaghetti. The boy from Conosha with the funny earring in his left ear devoured a dish of delicious Italian pasta a la Milanese. These two sentences have the same structure:            John            ate            spaghetti.            The boy from Conosha with the funny earring in his left ear            devoured            a dish of delicious Italian pasta a la Milanese. Both are simple sentences from a structural point of view. They both consist of a subject and a predicate indicating what the subject did. They are both composed of two noun phrases and a verb. They both can be reduced with pronouns to            He ate it. Note that length alone does not determine structure, although it is often a factor. We are concerned with the complexity of structure, not length. Finally, besides the pronoun test, another test of a simple sentence is that we generally cannot leave any portion of the original sentence out without significantly changing the meaning. Any discussion composed only of simple sentences would seem childish in expression. While simple sentences are useful for emphasis or clarity, as when summing up an argument, simple sentences alone do not allow for expressing complex thoughts. They are not conducive to asserting relationships or qualifying thoughts. To develop a sentence further we have to add stuff. This can be done in one of two ways: ·          we can simply multiply the elements that are there, or ·          we can add additional elements. The first instance produces what is known as compound sentences, the second complexsentences. Complex is the more general term. It suggests a degree of additional structure beyond a simple sentence. Compound refers to a specific and limited type of complexity. Series -- Compounding Elements The term "compound" can be interpreted as "repeating" or "multiple." In a compound sentence one or more elements are simply repeated. The subject can be multiple The boy, his sister, and his dog went swimming. (1) The boy,    (2) his sister, and  (3) his dog went swimming. The verb may be compound They ran, swam, and laughed.. They (1) ran,  (2) swam, and (3) laughed.. A full predicate may consist of a series of remarks: He moved here, found a job, and sent my kids to school. He (1) moved here,  (2) found a job, and (3) sent my kids to school. Two or more sentence can be compounded into one: This is where I call home; this is where I'll die. (1) This is where I call home; (2) this is where I'll die. or This is where I call home, so this is where I'll die.         (1) This is where I call home, so (2) this is where I'll die. Here we have two simple sentences linked together. The term "compound sentence" is generally used to describe such cases. When individual elements within a sentence are repeated, the series is divided by commas. The comma stands for, in effect, the word and . The comma before the final item, before and , is often optional, but it is used here to make clear that the final two elements are not a pair, as in milk, bacons and eggs-- as opposed to the three items milk, bacon, and eggs. . When sentences are compounded, they are divided by and, a semicolon, or by a compounding term and a comma. Sentence one and sentence two Sentence one ; sentence two Sentence one ; however sentence two. Compound sentences a