Đề tài A new approach to semantic and syntactic functions of English adjectives – A contrastive analysis with their Vietnamese equivalents

She is a fine woman. Fine is an adjective realized as noun phrase in which fine pre-modifies noun woman so fine is attributive similarly, faint can be used attributively when it is not in connection with health such as a faint chance, a faint hope. _ Predicative adjectives beginning with a- The following adjectives are used only predicatively like afloat, afraid, alight, alike, alone, ashamed, asleep, awake. The children were asleep at 7, but now they’re awake.These adjectives: asleep, awake used predicatively because they complete the predication begun with the linking verbs were, was. _ Predicative adjectives describing feelings, reactions, etc. Some adjectives which describes feeling, etc. As content, glad, pleased, sorry, upset and a few others like far and near apart from the far East or the Near East are normally used only predicatively, for example: I am very glad to meet you. Your hotel is quite near here, It isn’t far from home. ( L. G. Alexander 109-110) 2.3.3 Adjectives function as head of a noun phrase Adjective can function as head of noun phrase and can be subject, of the sentence, object, complement or complement of a preposition. As a result, they do not inflect for number or genitive case, and they must take a definitive determiner. We can not usually leave out a noun after an adjective, for example: Poor little boy! ( not poor little!) (10) In the example (10) poor little has meaningless, non-sense so reader can’t understand. There are some exceptions, there are three types of adjectives that function without noun, that are adjectives functioning as head of noun phrase) 2.3.3.1 Well- known groups Adjectives belonging to well- known group are adjectives expressing some group of people in society. The form the + adjective used to discuss certain well- known groups of people in society especially people in a particular physical or social condition such as the blind, the dead, the deaf, the handicapped, the jobless, the mentally ill, the old, the poor, the rich, the unemployed, the young, the sick,…for example: He’s collecting money for the blind.(11) In the example 11, it means that he’s collecting money for the blind people or all blind people in general. It does not refer to just one person or to a small group. It can not denote one person the blind man, the blind woman. It is often capable of adding a general word for human beings likes people. In which case, people is normally omitted and the use of the blind as head of the noun phrase or without noun. The meaning of well-known groups is usually general, sometimes a more limited group is referred to, for instance: After the accident, the injured were take to hospital.(12) (Michael Swan, 13) In the example 12, the injured doesn’t mean generally, but it refers to a limited group, that is the injured people in the accident, but such as the injured people in the war, fighting. Note that these expressions can not be used with a possessive s. The problems of the poor or poor people’s problem is not correct grammatically.Some adjectives used without the as head of a noun phrase in paired structures with and or or, for example: Opportunities for both the rich and the poor.(13) (Michael Swan, 13) In the example 13, the rich and the poor express the rich people and the poor people in general. From the above point, it’s a very common knowledge that adjectives use as head of a noun phrase ( NP heads) normally need a definite determiner, they are absolutely able to without a determiner if they are linked. So it is the reason that opportunities for both rich and poor we can also say that in the sentence : opportunities for both the rich and the poor. 2.3.3.2 Adjectives referring to abstract ideas Some adjectives used as noun phrase heads. When they have abstract or general reference such as the supernatural, the unexpected, the unknown, the best, the ridiculous,… so its abstract sense means that thing or those things which are unknown. In which case we can insert a general noun like thing/ news. And these abstract adjectives are followed by a singular verb, for example: The most surprising (thing) is that she will study abroad. Verb which has subject ( with abstract adjectives) taken singular form is. Let’s see another example: The annoying thing was that I didn’t understand deeply the exercise. 2.3.3.3 Nationality adjectives used without nouns Some adjectives referring to nationalities use as noun phrase heads: The Vietnamese are very proud of their history.(14) In example 14, the Vietnamese expresses the Vietnamese people in general, but not the particular Vietnamese people or Vietnamese women/ men. A few nationality adjectives ending in -sh, -ch or –ese are used after the as head of noun phrase, they include: -sh : British, English, Spanish, Irish; -ch: Dutch, French; -ese : Vietnamese, Chinese, Japanese. Similarly, adjectives relating to well-known groups of people in social group, nationality adjectives are referred to general meaning and take plural and singular equivalences as well. For example an Irish woman, a welsh man unlike adjectives referring social groups, adjectives of nationality can not be modified by adjectives like very with general and plural meaning. They can be modified by adjectives which are commonly non-restrictive. Consider the following sentence: The industrious Vietnamese women always strive harder to catch up with those in other countries. (15) In example 15, it can be understood that the Vietnamese women, who are industrious and dexterous always strive harder to catch up with those in other countries. The native English are very friendly. ( The English, who are native, are very friendly.) 2.3.4 Supplementative adjective clauses An adjective (alone or as head of adjective phrase ) can function as supplementative adjective clause or a verbless adjective clause . The clause is mobile, through it usually precedes or follow the subject of the superordinate clause (by then) nervous, the man opened the letter. The man, (by then) nervous, opened the letter. The man opened the letter, (by then ) nervous. (Quirk et el 1972, 119 ) When verbless adjective clause comes closely the subject, such as The man, (by then) nervous, opened the letter. It is, in some aspects, like a non-restrictive relative clause as in: The man, who was ( by then) nervous, opened the letter. Unlike the relative clause, the adjective clause is mobile and its implied is usually the subject of the sentences. Thus, while we have : The man restrained the woman, who was aggressive. We do not have: *The man restrained the woman, aggressive. However, if the clause contains addition constituents, its implied subject can be other than the subjective of the sentence: She glanced with disgust at the cat, quiet (now) in her daughter’s lap. While in the participle clause, the implied subjective can also be other than the subjective of the sentence. She glanced with disgust at the cat, stretched out on the rug. She glanced with disgust at the cat, mewing plaintively. (Quirk et al 1972, 119) Nevertheless, the implied subjective of the adjective clause can be the whole of the superordinate clause. Look at these two examples: Crowded holiday resorts are not very pleasant.(16) Holiday resorts which are crowded are not very pleasant.(17) Crowded in the sentence 16 is an adjective and which are crowded in th example 17 is a clause which has a finite verb are. The clause is doing exactly the same work as the adjective it is describing the holiday resorts or in other words it is qualifying the noun holiday resorts so we call it a relative clause because it relates to the noun. In this case, by means of the word which. In short, adjectival clause can describe person, things and events. We can realize that the adjectival clause shows that holiday resorts crowdedness is related to the content of whole sentence. Other examples of the verbless adjective clause : Strange, it was she who initiated divorce proceedings. It is semantically equivalent to that is was she who initiated divorce proceedings is strange. An adverb may sometimes replace with little difference in meaning, an adjective function as a verbless clause, for example: Nervously, the man opened the letter. Nervous, the man opened the letter. The adjective refers to the subjective without explicit reference to the action, and otherwise stated, the characterization is only temporary in its application. But if an explicit time indicator is introduced, the application of the adjective is extended in time. For example, when we insert always, the man’s nervousness becomes a permanent characteristic, and is not specifically connected with the action, for example: Always nervous, the man opened the letter. But when the implied subjective is the whole clause, a corresponding adverb can replace the adjective with little or no difference in meaning, such as with strangely for strange, for example: Strangely, it was she who initiated divorce proceedings. However, the adjective, unlike the adverb, allows a that- or how- clause as follows: Strange that it turned out that way. Strange how she still likes him. In such cases, it’s is ellipted and the adjective is not separated from the clause by a comma. The supplementive adjective clause also expresses the circumstance or condition under which what is said in the superordinat clause applies. A subordinator is often present but can be omitted, for example: Enthusiastic, they make good students. ~ When they feel enthusiastic, they make good students. When ripe, these apples are sweet. ~ When these apples are ripe, they are sweet. Whether right or wrong, he always comes off worst in an argument. ~ Whether he is right or wrong, he always comes off worst in an argument. The implied subjective of the adjective clause is normally the subjective of the superordinate, but it can also be the objective, for example: We can drink it hot. You must eat it when fresh. The adjective then usually comes finally and could be regarded as a complement. The implied subjective can be the whole of the superordinate clause, for example: If possible, the dog should be washed everyday. 2.2.5 Exclamatory adjective sentence An adjective as head of an adjective phrase or as its sole realization can be an exclamation: How good of you! An exclamation is a sentence spoken with emphasis and feeling. Attention here is restricted to exclamatory utterances introduced by: How + Adjective + (S +V)! How warm the water is ! The exclamation shows that the water is very warm or in other words, the water extremely warm. It expresses the speaker’s feeling about the degree of warmth. Other examples are about exclamations with ellipted S + V How wonderful! How difficult! How lucky! Adjective only can be a short exclamation as in: Excellent! Wonderful! Lovely! These is usually a greater rise or fall of the voice than in other types of sentences. When writing we use an exclamation mark. 2.4 Summary In this chapter, some basic information adjective in English are presented generally with definition of adjectives. Especially, readers can find some information in details about classification adjectives in terms of their semantic and syntactic functions of English adjectives as follows: stative and dynamic adjectives, gradable and non- gradable adjectives, inherent and non- inherent adjectives. Furthermore, four syntactic functions of English adjectives are also pointed, they are adjectives functioning as attributive, predicative, exclamatory adjective sentence and adjectives functioning as head of a noun phrase including well-known groups, adjectives referring to abstract ideas. All. In brief, much back ground knowledge of English adjectives are given in this chapter. All these are effective sources for the further study in the next chapter. Chapter III A new approach to SEMANTIC AND Syntactic functions of English Adjectives English adjectives are rather diversified in terms of syntactic and semantic functions. According to the survey, the writer would like to introduce classification of English adjectives in terms of usage and their semantic and syntactic functions in the chapter as follows : 3.1 Classification of English adjectives in terms of their usage According to Alexander (1998, 106), an adjective describes the person, thing, etc… which a noun refers to. We use adjectives to say what a person, etc … is like or seems like. As we know, there are many classifications of English adjs. However the writer based on Dixon’s View (1991, 78) to classify English adjectives more categorically. In terms of their usage classification, English adjectives are divided into ten types as follows: Dimension, physical property, speed, age, color, value, difficulty, qualification, human propensity, and similarity. Type 1: Dimension Dimension adjectives are adjectives referring to length, breadth, depth, size, etc that a person or thing has existed. Let’s see dimension adjectives as examples: big, great, thin, deep, tall, large, etc. He is short. (Alexander 1988, 106) She looked tall. (Jane Eyre 1847, 56) It was a thin oaten cake. (Jane Eyre 1847, 52) Type 2: Physical property Physical property is any property used to characterize matter, energy and their interaction. This group includes adjectives as follows: hard cool fresh strong heavy cheap clean sweet a cheap Indian restaurant (Alexander 1988, 115) However the physical property adjectives can be also divided into a CORPOREAL subtype. well ill absent sick dead He’s a sick man. (Alexander 1988, 115) She is usually absent from the class without any reasons. Type 3: Speed Speed adjectives are adjectives referring to a rate (usually rapid ) at which something happens. This group includes adjectives as follows: quick rapid sudden fast slow The process of growth wasn’t fast. ( Chicken Soup, 1999, p26) A quick glance convinced me that he could do that. Type 4: Age Age adjectives are adjectives expressing length pf time that a person or thing has existed as : new young old modern He is an old man. I have bought a new car. Most of them are very young . (Jane Eyre 1847, 223) Type 5: Color Color adjectives are adjectives referring to the appearance of objectives or light sources described in terms of a person’s perception or their hue and lightness. Here are some examples: white crimson purple black mottled yellow red Old  His hair is quite white. (Jane Eyre 1847, 223) That is a black horse. The bed was covered with a crimson cloth. (Jane Eyre 1847, 223) Type 6: Value Value adjectives are adjectives expressing the qualities that renders something desirable or valuable. Here are some examples: good odd crucial bad strange important lovely curious lucky atrocious necessary John’s having resigned was very odd. Canterbury is a lovely city. Health plays a very important role. Type 7:Difficulty Difficulty adjectives are adjectives referring to a condition or state affairs almost beyond one’s ability to deal with and requiring great effort to bear or overcome. easy tough difficult hard simple It is hard for Marry to operate our mower. Things are getting so difficult. Driving a bus isn’t easy. (Quirk 1973, 114) Type 8: Qualification Adjectives denoting qualification are capacity fitting a person for a position or purpose. In qualification adjectives, they are divided into a number of subtypes as definite, possible, usual, likely, sure, and correct. Firstly, definite adjectives, the kind of adjective expresses a factual qualification regarding an event as definite, probable, true. It is definite that the King will visit. Secondly, possible adjectives ,the kind of adjective expresses the speaker’s opinion about an event, which is often some potential happening, such as possible, impossible, etc. No, sir; that is impossible, I can not do it because it is wrong . (Jane Eyre, p281) Thirdly, usual adjectives, the kind of adjective points out the speaker’s opinion about how predictable some happening is like usual, normal, common,… It seems normal for no one to work. Cyclones are common at this time of year. Fourth , likely adjectives, the kind of adjective is also an opinion, but like the usual adjectives they tend to focus on the subject’s potentiality to think about some happening such as likely, certain,.. John is likely to win. It is certain that the monsoon will come this month. Next, sure adjectives, similarly the likely adjectives group, but they have a stronger focus on the subject’s control, like sure,… I am sure she is not right. ( Jane Eyre, 251) Finally, correct adjectives as: correct wrong right appropriate sensible I am sure there is something wrong. This kind has two distinct senses, commenting: (i) on the correctness of a fact, similar to the definite adjectives. That the whale is not a fish is right. (ii) on the correctness of the subject undertaking some activity. John was right to resign . Type 9: Human Propensity Adjectives denoting human propensity are adjective expressing ability or an attitude, emotion to something happening. This kind of adjectives also have a great of subtypes as fond, angry, happy, unsure, eager, and clever. Firstly, fond adjectives, the kind of adjective expresses hobbies and usually take preposition of: I am fond of reading books. Secondly, angry adjectives describing an emotional reaction to some definite happening such as angry (about), jealous (of), mad (about), etc. She was angry about what he had done. Thirdly, happy adjectives, the kind of adjective is an emotional response to some actual or potential happening. Let’s take the following into consideration: anxious thankful glad keen careful proud happy sorry ashamed I am happy about the decision. Fourth, unsure adjective, these expresses the speaker’s assessment about some potential event such as certain, sure, unsure, curious,… The result of the race was rather curious. I am unsure of the time of the meeting. She is curious (about) whether John will attend. (Dixon 1991, 83) Next, eager adjectives, these means wanting, enthusiasm such as eager, ready, prepared, willing. The rich are willing to donate tens of millions of dong to the poor. I’m eager for the fray. Finally, clever adjectives, the kind of adjective refers to ability or an attitude towards social relations with others. Here are some examples: clever lucky stupid kind cruel generous It is very stupid for John to come in without knocking. ( Dixon 1991, 83) Type 10: Similarity Adjectives denoting similarity are adjectives having the similar or dissimilar characteristics. This kind of adjective compares two things, states or events such as like, unlike (which are the only adjectives take a direct objective); similar (to), different (from) (which introduce the second role obligatory for an adjective from this type. They usually take a preposition, here are two examples: John is similar to his cousin. Her fashion was so different from her sister’s. 3.2. Classification in terms of their semantic functions According to the survey, and basing on ten kinds of English adjectives as mentioned above, the writer would like to find out what kinds of English adjectives belong to gradable or non- gradable adjectives. 3.2.1 Gradable and non-gradable adjectives As we know that most adjectives are gradable. The writer finds out nine kinds of adjectives belong to gradable adjectives group as follows: Type 1-Dimension, type 2 - Physical properly, type 3 - Speed, type 4 - Age, type 5 - Colour, type 6 - Value, type 7 - Difficulty, type 8 - Qualification ( restricted by “usually” subtype), type 9 - Human propensity ( only with happy and clever subtype ). When analyzing these adjectives, and basing on semantic functions of English adjectives, the writer would like to list their semantic functions of the gradable adjectives as follows: Most adjectives above are typically related to a concrete noun, generally related to human noun. The adjective types are considered as gradable adjectives because they express degrees in the quality referred to and they can be modified by intensifiers to emphasize their meanings. Let's see the following examples: Type1: The school-room was very long. ( Jane Eyre 1847, 52) This a very large town Type2: It 's very cool today. Of intensifiers, very is most frequently used. Different from other intensifiers, very can be doubled itself to make the premodifiers’ meanings even stronger: a very, very old woman *He is an extremely, extremely intelligent student. Type3: If he was too slow, the other dogs stole his food. Type 6: You are a very good girl. (Jane Eyre, 1847,p45) Moreover, the adjectives above can form comparatively and superlatively when we want to describe something by saying that it has much quality than something else or anything else. Here are some examples: Type 1: This shirt is smaller than that one. Type 3: In a lower tone, but still loud enough for me to hear. Type 4: My sister is older than me. Type 9: Children are the happiest people now. A new color adjectives also have comparison degree: Type 5: We have no redder hat than that one. Contrast to gradable adjectives, the writer also find some adjective types considered as non gradable adjectives as follows: type 8: Qualification (with definite, possible, like, sure subtypes ) and type 10- Similarity. Most adjectives can not be modified by intensifiers. It is not impossible to say: * Very sure / possible/likely (type 8) * Very different (from) (type 10) * Very similar (to) (type 10) Moreover adjectives belonging to type 8 and type 10 can not take a comparative or superlative form such as sure, possible, different. 3.2.2 Stative and dynamic adjectives According to the ability to be used in the progressive (continuous aspect) form, adjectives are classified into stative and dynamic. Some adjectives are not generally used in progressive forms. They are called stative because they refer to states, experiences and conditions rather than to action. Dynamic adjectives, on the other hand, have their own characteristics. They usually refer to actions or dynamic adjectives can be used in progressive. According to the survey, we can find out that the above types of adjective can be realized as stative and dynamic, stative adjectives are classified as type 1: Dimension, type 2: Physical property, type 3: Speed and type 5 : Color. These kinds of adjective denote a state or condition, which may generally be considered permanent such as big, round, strong, cool, etc… They can not normally be sued in imperative construction. It is not possible to say: * Be big/red/narrow. Especially, the types can not usually be used in progressive constructions: * He is being big/red/small. Unlike stative adjectives, dynamic adjectives are classified as follows: Type 7 - Difficulty, type 9 - Human propensity and type 10 - Similarity. The above kinds of adjectives can be seen as dynamic because they are used in an imperative mood. Let's start by looking at these examples: Type 9: Don't be stupid. Furthermore they are used in the progressive tense. He is being stupid again. In short, syntactic functions of English adjectives are ordered clearly as in the following table: Kinds of adjective Semantic functions of English adjectives Gradable non- gradable stative dynamic Dimension + + Physical Property + + Speed + + Age + Colour + + Value + Difficulty + + Qualification + + Propensity + + Similarity + 3.3 Classification in terms of syntactic functions In terms of structural classification, adjectives are divided into four types as mentioned in the chapter I. Basing on syntactic functions, the English adjectives would be gathered clearly in accordance with their classification. 3.3.1 Attributive An adjective may bear several possible relationships to the noun or noun phrase that it qualifies. 3.3.1.1 Adjectives as premodification The premodification is a modification that comprises all items placed between the head of a noun phrase and the determiners notably adjectives or nouns: Adjective as premodification can function as the following structure: (determiners) +adjs Basing on the structure and ten kinds of adjective classified in terms of usage, the writer realizes some kinds belong to this structure as type 1- Dimension, type 2 - Physical property, type 3 - Speed, type 4- Age, type 5 - Color, type 6 - Value. It proves this in the following examples : Type 1: a very l