Luận án Language of graduation in english literary discourse through the lens of translation

discourse are such isolating maximisers as utterly, totally, thoroughly, absolutely, completely, perfectly altogether, terribly, exceedingly, entirely, greatly, extremely, fully, quite, enormously, highly, extraordinarily, dreadfully, fully, excessively, awfully and most as depicted in Table 4.10. Table 4.10. Distribution of Isolating Maximisers modifying Qualities and Verbal Processes most popular Intensifying Items Freq. % quite 189 39.3 perfectly 53 11 most 40 8.3 entirely 29 6 extremely / greatly 22 4.6 completely 21 4.4 altogether / absolutely 17 3.5 thoroughly 16 3.3 exceedingly 13 2.7 highly 12 2.5 utterly 11 2.3 fully 6 1.2 terribly 4 0.8 awfully 3 0.6 enormously / extraordinarily / dreadfully / excessively / totally 1 0.2 less popular Total 481 100 As can be seen, this category of language takes up a relatively large number (481 out of 1,115 instances, see again Table 4.2), of which quite is the most prominently used, followed by perfectly and most. Others such as entirely, extremely, greatly and completely are also preferable. By contrast, such maximisers as terribly, fully, enormously, extraordinarily, dreadfully, excessively, totally and shockingly very rarely appear in this discourse. In addition, a series of other intensifiers occur at the very low rate like altogether (17 cases), absolutely (17 cases), thoroughly (16 cases), exceedingly (13 cases), highly (12 cases) or utterly (11 cases). It is clear from the data collected that there are some significant differences in the distribution among the maximisers. Table 4.11. Isolating Maximisers modifying Qualities and Verbal Processes Intensifiers as Modifiers Freq. % Qualities 395 82 Verbal processes 86 18 Total 481 100 Table 4.11 shows the distribution of isolating maximisers up-scaling qualities and verbal processes to the highest degree. The majority is maximisers modifying qualities with 395 cases (equivalent to 82%) while those modifying processes occur in a very small number with 86 cases (equivalent to just 18%). This proves that like isolating intensifiers, isolating maximisers in qualities are used much more frequently than those in processes. Or rather, the speaker or writer targets assessment of qualities of entities rather than on assessment of processes as activities, events, actions or movements. As investigated, when served as modifiers of qualities, maximisers can be pre-modifiers of adjectives, participles as adjectives, adjectives in adjective phrases and noun phrases, gerunds, adverbs, noun phrases and prepositional phrases. 4.1.3.1. Up-scaling in Qualities As already discussed above, almost all the isolating maximisers take the function of setting the level of intensity of qualities as pre-modifiers of adjectives or adverbs, reaching a large number (395 out of 481 instances). They boost the value of adjectives as epithets or quality attributes, and the value of adverbs to the highest point on the scale of grading. Via up-grading of qualities, the intensifiers can display both positive and negative appraisals towards entities as they modify not only adjectives but also participles, adjective phrases, and adjectives in NPs. A detailed description of isolating maximisers upgrading qualities as pre-modifiers of adjectives and adverbs is displayed as in Table 4.12. Table 4.12. Distribution of Isolating Intensifiers of Adjectives and Adverbs Items Freq. Examples quite 179 quite (alone, disappointed, wicked, natral); quite ready to kiss, quite common to see the women; remembered him quite well perfectly 48 perfectly (guilty, happy, good-humoured, miserable); perfectly at home most 38 most anxious; most (graciously, cruelly, keenly); most extraordinarily eager in the conduct of it entirely 21 entirely (dumb, miserable); entirely of this opinion, entirely on him-self, entirely out of the question extremely 20 extremely (talkative, tender); extremely and foolishly indulgent; extremely slovenly, greatly 14 greatly to the relief of the small party whom he left, greatly in favour of her own country altogether 11 altogether honest; absolutely no gift, an altogether accurate account absolutely 12 absolutely desperate; absolutely (unchanged, exhausted); absolutely no gift thoroughly/ completely 10 thoroughly indifferent; thoroughly in deb; completely rendered, completely overdone with sleep exceedingly 7 exceedingly (red, ill, grave, naughty); exceedingly awkward and ungainly highly 9 highly (creditable, agreeable) utterly 6 utterly imprudent young fellow fully/awfully 3 fully worthy of the praises; awfully proud terribly 2 sleepy enormously/ extraordinarily/ dreadfully/ excessively 1 enormously rich; extraordinarily nice; dreadfully painful; an excessively large top hat Total 395 The level of intensity exhibited in epithets or quality attributes realized by means of isolating maximisers modifying adjectives or adverbs is now elaborated with examples taken from the collected data of the literary genre. A- Pre-Modification of Adjectives as Quality Attributes [113] These two, Giles and Jesse, were so alike and so inseparable that they were known as the Dromios. They were never seen otherwise than together; in this way passing their lives, apparently perfectly content. (MP_E, p. 178) [114] “It’s awfully hot here!” said the girl; “I should like to go out.” (MP_E, p. 87) [115] What were the adventures of Mr. Osborne and Miss Amelia? That is a secret. But be sure of this - they were perfectly happy, and correct in their behaviour (VF_E, p. 49) Being pre-modification of adjectives as quality attributes, isolating maximisers can increase a force on adjectives as epithets which define the highest quality of entities (Martin & White 2005). For example, observing the samples in [113]-[115] shows the fact that such adjectives as content in [113], hot in [114] and happy in [115] help accelerate the intensity of the qualities under question (i.e., ‘contentment’, ‘heat’, ‘happiness’) to the highest point of the scale towards entities being they, it and they thanks to the effect of intensifiers. The entities expressed by the personal pronouns evidently attach to contexts so that the listener and reader can comprehend what the speaker and writer wishes to emphasize on. Clearly, the context for they is Giles and Jesse as in [113]; it is based on ‘I should like to go out’ as in [114] referring to the weather or the environment; they refers to Mr. Osborne and Miss Amelia as in [115]. As for adjectives in NPs, it is an evident thing that the entities are nouns. Moreover, considering the case of modifying adjectives in APs with its complement being a prepositional phrase as in [116] and [117] shows that the upscaling of the degree of intensity of adjectives as qualities can be realized not only on entities but also on the complements, this is, of the praises bestowed by the disinterested instructor as in [116] and with yourself as in [117]. [116] now and then that the pupil is fully worthy of the praises bestowed by the disinterested instructor. (VF_E, p. 9) [117] “Ah!” he had said to Bosinney when he could speak, and I suppose you’re perfectly contented with yourself. (MP_E, p. 165) It can be added that by levering the qualities to the highest intensity, the language of intensification can reflect the appraisal in both positive and negative directions. This can be understandable that expressions like ‘perfectly content’ in [113], ‘perfectly happy’ in [115], or ‘perfectly contented’ in [117] reflect the positive subjective appraisal whereas ‘awfully hot’ refers to the negative subjective appraisal. As a result, the listener and writer can see the force of the speaker and writer’s commitment towards entities and propositions. B- Pre-Modification of Adjectives in NPs as Quality Attributes Other cases found in the data are such isolating maximisers as extremely, thoroughly, entirely, utterly, most and completely which modify adjectives in noun phrases being quality attributes as described through examples of [118]-[121]. These intensifiers put a strong force on adjectives accompanied namely sound in [118], dull in [119], foolish in [120] or imprudent in [121] towards the entities being man, party, women and fellow respectively. Here, the entities are apparently recognized, and thus it is not necessary to refer to contexts. Besides, it is evident to see that these maximisers raise the intensity of quality attributes to determine both the positive assessment as in [118] and the negative assessment as in [119]-[121]. [118] There was one class of husband that had just then come into fashion, the strong, rather rough, but extremely sound man, (MP_E, p. 51) [119] It was a thoroughly dull party from the beginning, (MS_E, p. 21) [120] and as she had no sort of character, nor talents, nor opinions, nor occupations, nor amusements, nor that vigour of soul and ferocity of temper which often falls to the lot of entirely foolish women (VF_E, p. 76) [121] Dobbin thought he would not mind Siberia - and, strange to say, this absurd and utterly imprudent young fellow never for a moment considered that the want of means to keep a nice carriage and horses (VF_E, p. 174) C- Pre-Modification of Adverbs The case of maximisers up-scaling of qualities expressed by adverbs make up quite a modest number (37 out of 394 instances). Being found in the data are such maximisers as perfectly, extremely, most and quite, of which quite is prominently used. It can be said that these maximisers can strengthen the intensity of adverbs of manner denoting qualities as seen in typical examples of [122]-[124]. [122] he bore everything quite patiently, and was entirely dumb and miserable. (VF_E, p. 38) [123] The mated pairs were prattling away quite happily (VF_E, p. 50) [124] But Euphemia, who knew perfectly well that he had refused to be her godfather, (MP_E, p. 125) D- Pre-Modification of Noun Phrases We can see a few isolating maximisers modifying noun phrases such as quite, entirely and altogether as in examples of [125]-[127]. These maximisers put an emphasis on the noun phrases and raise the intensity towards the whole noun phrases focusing on entities, which are gift, world and day. See the examples, [125] He had absolutely no gift for anything like that. (MS_E, p. 57) [126] For Amelia it was quite a new, fresh, brilliant world, with all the bloom upon it. It was not quite a new one for Rebecca. (VF_E, p. 18) [127] he had been short of exercise for a long time - and altogether a very satisfactory day. (MP_E, p. 78) E- Pre-modification of Prepositional Phrases In addition, some maximisers such as altogether, entirely, utterly and completely are used to modify some prepositional phrases, as can be seen in examples from [128] to [130]. These prepositional phrases are defined as circumstances of manner reflecting qualities like entirely of stone, completely in the wrong and entirely of this opinion. [128] The house, of course, should be built entirely of stone, (MP_E, p. 71) [129] Over this last expenditure, however, Bosinney had put himself completely in the wrong. (MP_E, p. 165) [130] And Amelia was entirely of this opinion, to which, gradually, the good-natured Mrs. Sedley was brought. (VF_E, p. 47) 4.1.3.2. Up-scaling in Verbal Processes Most isolating maximisers found in the data operate the function of increasing degree of intensity of verbal processes except for awfully, enormously, extraordinarily, dreadfully and excessively. However, these intensifiers make up a relatively small percentage, only 18% (or 86 cases) compared with maximisers whose function is to up-scale qualities, which account for 82% (394 cases). Of the 86 cases of maximizers intensifying verbal processes, quite is the most frequent (14 cases), followed by completely (11 cases) while some other intensifiers rarely occur such as totally (1), extremely (2), terribly (2), highly (3), fully (3) and most (3) as shown in Table 4.13. Table 4.13. Distribution of Isolating Maximisers Up-scaling Verbal Processes Items Freq. Examples of Processes quite 14 * Material - quite (win, cure, restore) * Mental - quite (know, understand) completely 11 * Material - yielded completely, completely averted * Mental - make up someone’s mind completely * Behavior - deceived completely greatly/ entirely 8 * Material - increase greatly; dropped entirely * Mental - suffer greatly, entirely refused * Behaviour - greatly encourage; unbosom himself entirely altogether / thoroughly 6 * Material - altogether disappeared, kill her altogether; thoroughly gain * Mental - altogether believe, refused altogether; thoroughly believe * Rational - remained altogether exceedingly/ utterly / perfectly / absolutely 5 * Mental - disliked her elder nephew exceedingly; utterly perplexed me; knew the fact perfectly; absolutely forbid highly / fully 3 * Material - applauded my resolution highly * Mental - highly admired, disgusted; fully expect most / extremely / terribly 2 * Material - bit his nails most completely; terribly change * Mental - spoke most highly; hurt me extremely totally 1 * Mental - totally forget Total 86 The intensifiers are used to raise the intensity of verbal processes to the highest degree, for example, quite win, cure; completely removed, beaten in the race; dropped entirely; burn entirely; altogether disappeared; thoroughly cured; do perfectly, perfectly melt. Besides, these intensifiers modify a series of processes namely material processes, mental processes, rational processes, and behaviour processes. It can be added that these maximisers chiefly modify processes of transformation as material processes (41 cases) and verbal processes as mental ones (37 cases) while just some modify behaviour processes (5 cases) and rational processes (3 cases) as described in Table 4.14. Table 4.14. Distribution of Verbal Processes being Upscaled by Isolating Maximisers Intensifier Freq. Process quite, completely, greatly, entirely, altogether, thoroughly, exceedingly, utterly, perfectly, absolutely, highly, fully, most, extremely, terribly, totally 41 material process 37 mental process 5 behaviour process 3 rational process Total 86 It is an evident thing that means of such grammatical adverbs can upgrade the level of intensity of the processes of transformation, i.e., the intensity of the action or event is raised to the highest point. What is more, as can be seen, such maximisers play a vital role in conveying the highest degree of processes denoted by verbs of emotion - perturbed in [134] and disgusted in [136]; desideration - expected in [132]; wanted in [135] and refused in [133]; cognition and perception - believe in [131]. Moreover, these maximisers also have a great effect on a few verbs of psychological behavior such as deceive, encourage, respect, cry and some insensitive and possessive verbs such as remain and owe. [131] who never could thoroughly believe the young lady’s protestations that she had never exchanged a single word with Mr. Crisp, (VF_E, p. 16) [132] He had fully expected him there to give evidence; (MP_E, p. 201) [133] They entirely refused to have it in bed with them. (WH_E, p. 47) [134] Dobbin begged Chopper to report progress to him at the hotel where he was stopping, and walked off moodily west-wards, greatly perturbed as to the past and the future. (VF_E, p. 205) [135] I rather wanted to be a painter when I was a boy. (MS_E, p. 47) [136] I say, I wish you to come with me into the house!’ I cried, thinking him deaf, yet highly disgusted at his rudeness. (WH_E, p. 176) Noticeably, isolating maximisers can be both pre-modifiers of verbs as in [137]-[139] and post-modifiers of HEAD-verb as in [140]-[142]. When being served as pre-modifiers, there are two tendencies: (i) maximisers are categorized as grammatical item defined as a closed class that has no referential meaning (Martin & White, 2005, p. 143) as in [137] and [138], however, the maximisers strengthen or weaken the meaning embodied in the processes; (ii) they fall on so-called lexical item that creates ‘delexicalisation’ (ibid.) as in [147]. It can be further explained that as grammatical item, maximisers convey their full semantic meaning but as lexical item, they no longer load the full semantic meaning. In the position of Sinclair (1994, as cited in Martin & White, 2005): The meaning of words chosen together is different from their independent meanings. They are at least partly delexicalized. This is the necessary correlate of co-selection. If you know that selections are not independent, and that one selection depends on another, then there must be a result and effect on the meaning which in each individual choice is a delexicalization of one kind or another. It will not have its independent meaning in full if it is only part of a choice involving one or more words. [Sinclair 1994, p. 23] For example: [137] Attempting once to scold her in public, Rebecca hit upon the before-mentioned plan of answering her in French, which quite routed the old woman. (VF_E, p. 18) [138] I recollected the association of Heathcliff’s with Catherine’s name in the book, which had completely slipped from my memory, till thus awakened. (WH_E, p. 34) [139] Presently Francie said: “Do you know, I think Uncle Jolyon is terribly changed this last year. (MP_E, p. 128) [140] But Miss Crawley’s usual terrors regarding death increased greatly when such dismal propositions were made to her (VF_E, p. 171) [141] He thought she was thinking deeply of his troubles and pitied himself terribly. (MP_E, p. 96) [142] Rawdon Crawley, from the Prince of Wales’s friend, whom his Majesty George IV forgot so completely (VF_E, p. 59) 4.2. Intensification as Graduation Realized via Infusing Intensifiers 4.2.1. Preamble As mentioned in the previous section, infusing intensification suggested by Martin and White (2005) is any single lexical-grammatical item which can convey meaning of the scaling, unlike insolating intensifiers which modify certain function words. This is to explain why “there is no separate lexical form conveying the sense of up-scaling or down-scaling” (Martin & White, 2005, p.143). Therefore, it can be said that infusing intensification found in English literary discourse diversifies in its forms of manifestation involving lexical words such as adjectives, nouns, verbs and adverbs. Infusing intensification can also be realized via noun phrases or adjective phrases and even via clauses. Most of the cases of infusing intensification realized via phrases and clauses are known as simile, metaphor, hyperbole or repetition which will be discussed in Section 4.4. Generally, this category of language creates meaning (i) intensifying qualities along the cline of up or down-scaling; (ii) intensifying processes embodied in verbs or verbal phrases; (iii) denoting up or down-scaling of modalities; and (iv) determining absolute values and intensification via exclamatory sentences. As seen from the collected data, occurrences of infusing intensification as infusing intensifiers are quite different among groups. Infusing intensifiers of up/down-scaling of qualities account for the largest number (42%) and intensifiers serving as processes are recorded at the second highest rate (39%) while that denoting up/down-scaling of modalities occur at a very low rate (12%). It is also found that other intensifiers which denote absolute value and intensification in exclamatory sentences make up the lowest percentage (9%). Regarding intensification of up/down-scaling of quality, we can see that infusing intensifiers are realized by means of adjectives, adverbs, noun phrases and adjective phrases but in processes, verbs themselves are intensifiers serving as processes. Regarding the case of up/down-scaling of modalities, it is adverbs which take the function of intensifiers. However, infusing intensifiers denoting the absolute value can be recognized by means of adjectives, adverbs or nouns. Figure 4.5. Distribution of Infusing Intensifiers 4.2.2. Intensification via Infusing Intensifiers 4.2.2.1. Up/Down-scaling in Qualities As recognized by Martin and White (2005), infusing intensification indicates up/down-scaling of qualities embodied as individual items or “individual items in a sequence of semantically related terms contrast in degree of intensity with the other members of that sequence” (p. 144). However, the authors do not clarify what lexical types of words as defined from the concept. Therefore, via the data collected it can be stated that this category of language conveys a certain degree of intensity as up- or down-scaling of qualities being easily identifiable via adjectives, nouns, adverbs or even adjective phrases and noun phrases. Consider the following examples. [143] His eyes turned bloodshot. (MP_E, p. 7) [144] with this person Soames was really not in sympathy, and had it not been for his own position, would have expressed his disgust with the fellow. (MP_E, p. 51) [145] then he took his own cup of tea from his wife, and said, more coldly than he had intended. (MP_E, p. 72) [146] Bosinney replied coolly. (MP_E, p. 40) [147] Binney answered sharply. (MP_E, p. 79) It is understandable that infusing intensifiers as the individual items being the adjective ‘bloodshot’ as in [143] and the noun ‘disgust’ as in [144] take the role of upgrading a high degree of the status of ‘his eyes’ as well as a high degree of the temper. The individual items in a sequence are seen as in [145]-[147]; that is, the sequence ‘coldly à coolly à sharply’ which determines a contrast with one another along the cline of up-scaling of intensity indicating the qualitative processes ‘said’, ‘replied’ and ‘answered’. Table 4.15. Distribution of Infusing Intensifiers in Qualities Intensifying Items Freq. % Adjectives 207 65.5 Adverbs 61 19.6 Nouns 15 4.8 Noun Phrases 26 8.2 Adjective Phrases 6 1.9 Total 315 100 Table 4.15 shows that most infusing intensifiers are recognized via the lexical class as adjectives and adjectives in their noun phrases reaching 65.5% (207 cases). Infusing intensifiers as adverbs occupy a relatively large amount at 19.6% (61 cases) while those as noun phrases gain a very low percentage at 8.2% (26 cases). Only some of the cases are seen in the category of nouns and adjective phrases attaining quite a low percentage at 4.8% (15 cases) and 1.9% (6 cases) respectively. Unlike isolating intensifiers denoting up/down-scaling of qualities which are the pre-modifiers of adjectives and other adverbs, these infusing intensifiers themselves convey a certain degree of intensity or a degree of intensity in a sequence including other members that semantically relate to, and contrast with, one another in degree of intensity. A- Infusing Intensification up- or down-scaling Qualities as Adjectives As already mentioned, infusing intensifiers as adjectives up- or down-scaling qualities can be individual items or those in a sequence that semantically relate to and contrast with one another in degree of intensity. This can be further explained that the individual intensifiers found in the data are determined as epithets, for example, dreary expressing a high degree of boringness or delightful expressing a high degree of happiness. Besides, the infusing intensifiers as epithets in a sequence of graduation show a relation in meaning among intensifiers from a lower to higher level of intensity, for instance, ‘desperate à disappointed à hopeless’ on the scale of negatively appraising sorrow or ‘amiable à charming à fascinating’ on the scale of positively appraising beauty. Moreover, the infusing intensifiers in a sequence semantically contrasting with one another symmetrically lie on the continuous scale of values seen as gradable anonyms like ‘disappointedà hopeful; cold à hot’ (Hurford et al., 2007). Table 4.16 and Table 4.17 show infusing intensification in two sub-categories: individual infusing intensifiers and infusing intensifiers in sequences of intensity. As investigated, the individual infusing intensifiers in sequences of graduation from the data are more commonly used than the separated infusing intensifiers. However, it is evident that the class of infusing intensifiers as epithets tends to reflect more negative appraisal, especially those separated infusing intensifiers expressing negative appraisals. Additionally, the infusing intensifiers as epithets in sequences of graduation found from the data can manifest positive evaluations of beauty, kindness, joy and perfectness; at the same time, they are also present in rows of graduation showing negative evaluations of light, temper, physical appearance, psychol