There are few studies on the Catholic words in Vietnamese language
currently. This thesis is in such a general context, so there are definitely many
limitations. Targeted at the Catholic words in the prayer books of the Dominican order
Dioceses in Viet Nam, we firstly wish to provide an overview of this group of words,
then reflect partial characteristics of the Catholic words in Viet Nam which have not been
included in many studies. For that purpose and with specialized methodologies, including
surveying text, and linguistic description, and with the tactics such as: functional
analysis, structure analysis, the semantic constituent analysis, reference analysis, statistics
and classification, etc., we have surveyed and identified lexical units of the Catholic
words in distinction with other classes of words; classified and described the linguistic
characteristics of the Catholic lexical units; studied developments of these Catholic words
in the daily Vietnamese language in general. Specifically, the thesis has reached the
following findings:
1. On the theoretical basis of semantic vocabulary in general and semantic
vocabulary in relation to religion, the thesis has located the Catholic words in the prayer
books of the Dominican order Diocese in particular, Catholic words in Viet Nam in
general in the Vietnamese system. This positioning is important because it shows the
position and presence of a particular class of religious words in Vietnamese language that
no one has done before. This positioning initially shapes or identifies characteristics and
criteria for the study object not to be confused with the words of other classes and scopes.
2. Under the diachronic perspective, the Catholic words in the prayer books of the
Dominican order dioceses in Viet Nam in particular, the general Vietnamese Catholic
words have undergone a process of formation and development associated with the
process of introduction and development of the Catholic communion in Viet Nam. The
thesis has studied and identified two ways to form this group of words: borrowing and
creating new words
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2.2.1. Reason for borrowing the foreign Catholic words
The Catholicism officially entered Viet Nam around 1533. In Viet Nam,
before this time, had no vocabulary units that conveyed the concepts of the
Catholics. Therefore, the missionaries had to borrow Catholic concepts in their native
language and in Latin as the Church’s official language.
2.2.2. Origin of the Catholic loan words
2.2.2.1. Jewish origin: Jewish originated words were often borrowed through an
intermediate language such as Latin, Portuguese or Spanish, such as: Tội Adam (sin of
Adam), Amen, and Alleluia.
2.2.2.2. Greek origin: The Bible is written in Hebrew and Greek. This is why
many of the later Bible words widely used in the communion were of Greek origin, for
example: ẩn tu (hermit), cánh chung (eschatology), etc.
2.2.2.3. Latin origin: Latin is the official language of the Catholic Church, as such,
most of the concepts in the Catholicism are officially expressed in this language, for
example: Ảnh thánh (holy image), Bí tích (Sacrament), etc.
2.2.2.4. The Catholic loan words in Vietnamese language with traces of
Portuguese: for example: Sang-ta (holy), Cau-rut (Cross), etc.
2.2.2.5. The Catholic loan words in Vietnamese language with traces of
Spanish: for example: Thánh A-phô-tô-li (Apostle), A-r-ca-khê-lô (Archalgel)
2.2.2.6. Sino-Vietnamese Catholic words: There are 257/1132 units (23%) but
there are only 59 Sino-Vietnamese Catholic “jargons” equivalent to the Catholic
“jargons” included in Chinese (compared based on Sino-Vietnamese reading sounds).
2.2.3. Method of receiving Catholic loan words
2.2.3.1. Keep word form in the source language: There is a very low number of
words received, only 40/1132 Catholic words.
7
2.2.3.2. Phonetic transcription in source language: There are 103/1132 words
(9.09%). Most of the Indo-European words expressing the polymorphism.
2.2.3.3. Calque (loan translation and loan shift) in source language: there are
689/1132 words, accounting for more than 60.86%, as shown in the table below:
Table 2.1: Ratio of translation equivalence of Latin-Vietnamese Catholic words
Ratio of equivalence
Number of Latin
Catholic words
Number of
Vietnamese
Catholic words
Percentage
Latin 1: 1 Vietnamese 345 345 50%
Latin 1: 2 Vietnamese 79 158 23%
Latin 1: 3 Vietnamese 28 84 12%
Latin 1: 4 Vietnamese 10 40 5.9%
Latin 1: 5 Vietnamese 5 25 3.6%
Latin 1: 6 Vietnamese 5 30 4.4%
Latin 1: 7 Vietnamese 1 7 1.1%
Total 473 689 100%
The table shows that, the more words of translation equivalence the units have, the
lower their percentage is, indicating that the objects tends to self-normalize during their
use.
2.3. The ways of creating new words
2.3.1. Use new form to express a new meaning
The words of this nature were mainly formed by the following methods: creating a
new sound shell a shell named a newly formed concept; shortening combining and
shortening.
2.3.2. Use available form to express a new meaning
This is the way to form new words though adding a certain Catholic content to an
available Vietnamese word, similar to the expanding the word sense. For example, prayer
hands pose 1. Face or hold your hands together (Normal sense). 2. Hands facing each
8
other, the right thumb presses on the left thumb in the shape of the Cross and put in front
of the chest. (Catholic meaning).
2.4. Sub-conclusion
The thesis has mentioned the ways of forming the Catholic words in the
corpuses. The borrowing is the important way and makes up the majority of vocabulary
units. With a comparison, we have found that the borrowed Buddhist “jargons” mainly
came from Asian languages, while the Catholic “jargons” were mainly borrowed from
the Western languages.
The ways to creating new words in different methods can be divided into two
types of structures: the one that uses the new forms to express new contents and the one
that uses available forms and materials to express new contents, or also known as
creating new words with meaning development.
Chapter 3: STRUCTURAL AND SEMANTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
CATHOLIC WORDS IN THE PRAYER BOOKS OF THE DOMINICAN ORDER
DIOCESES IN VIET NAM
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Structural characteristics of Catholic words in the prayer books of the
Dominican order Dioceses in Viet Nam
3.2.1. Characteristics of Catholic single words
3.2.1.1. Overview: The thesis has classified 95/1132 from the application
(8.39%). This ratio is much lower than the 15.05% of single word
in Vietnamese Buddhist vocabulary [60].
3.2.1.2. Catholic single words considered in terms of the number of syllables:
According to the statistics, the number of polymorphic single words (62.1%) is almost as
twice as the number of monosyllabic single words (37.9%). This is explained by the large
number of the Catholic words borrowed from the Indo-European family origin.
3.2.1.3. Catholic single words considered in terms of part of speech: Based on the
traditional grammatical concept of part of speech, we have identified the types of the
single words as follows: nouns accounted for 67.36%, verbs accounted for 27.36%,
9
adjectives accounted for 3.15%. Thus, the ratio of nouns is superior, showing that the
system of names of concepts and objects occupies a large part in the prayers.
3.2.1.4. Catholic single words considered in terms of origin of constituents
Table 3.4: Catholic single words considered in terms of origin of constituents
Origin of constituents of the Catholic
single words
Quantity Ratio (%)
Native Vietnamese 24 25.26
Sino – Vietnamese 20 21.05
Indo-European 51 53.68
Total 95 100,00
According to Nguyen Van Khang (2013), there are about 4,000 common French
and English originated words, 60-70% Sino-Vietnamese originated words used in
Vietnamese [51]. Meanwhile, the proportion of Sino-Vietnamese originated constituents
and of Indo-European originated constituents in this class of words is just over 21% and
53%. This can be explained by the characteristics of the language exposure process in the
activities of the Catholic community in Viet Nam.
3.2.2. Characteristics of Catholic compound words
3.2.2.1. Overview
Table 3.5. General features of compound Catholic words in Vietnamese
Catholic Compound words Quantity Ratio (%)
Structure Main - secondary 569 77.79
Independent 163 23.21
Word type Noun 515 73.40
Verb 154 21.93
Adjective 33 4.46
Origin of structural
elements
Native Vietnamese 337 48.01
Sino-Vietnamese 119 16.90
Mixed 246 35.04
Total 720 100,00
10
3.2.2.2. Characteristics of relationship of Catholic compound words:
The thesis has identified 163 independent compound words (23.21%), 569 main-
secondary ones (77.79 %).
3.2.2.3. Characteristics of types of Catholic compound words:
Among the Catholic compound words, there are 33 adjectives (4.46%), 154 verbs
(21.93%), 515 nouns (73.40%).
3.2.2.4. Characteristics of origin of constituents of Catholic compound words:
The compound words with native Vietnamese constituents have a remarkable
proportion with 337/702 units (accounting for 48.01%). Sino-Vietnamese originated
compound words: 119/702 (16.9%), Hybrid compound words: 246702 words (35.04%).
3.2.3. Characteristics of Catholic denomination combinations
3.2.3.1. Reason of forming the Catholic denomination combinations:
When words are not enough to denotes the concepts, the new linguistic units
should be formed based on the available words to name them. Based on the structural
characteristics, we call them denomination combinations.
3.2.3.2. Characteristics of word types and structural models of the Catholic
denomination combinations:
There are 302/358 noun-centered denomination combinations (84.35%); 37 verb-
centered ones (10.33%) indicating ritual actions; 19 adjective-centered ones (5.30%)
showing nuances or properties which were typical in the Catholic community activities.
3.2.3.3. Characteristics of origin of constituents of the Catholic denomination
combinations:
Of 302 noun-centered denomination combinations, 103 ones are made up of pure
Vietnamese constituents, accounting for 34.10%; 29 ones had Sino-Vietnamese
constituents, accounting for nearly 9.61%; 169 ones are composed of composite
constituents, accounting for 55.96%.
There are no constituents of the denomination combinations whose central
component is an Indo-European originated verb and adjective. This ratio shows a high
trend of use of pure Vietnamese words of the Catholic community when they are not
under the pressure of borrowing religious concepts.
11
3.3. Semantic characteristics of the Catholic words in the prayer books of the
Dominican order Dioceses in Viet Nam
3.3.1. Fundamental characteristics as a basis for denomination of the Catholic
words
3.3.1.1. Characteristics of content and meaning of holding the religious ceremony:
Including names of sacraments, prayers, rites in the liturgy and practice of popular
morality, methods of praying, etc.
3.3.1.2. Characteristics of holder of the religious ceremony:
The holder of the religious ceremony means the chair person, identical with the
celebrant, for example: Cha giải tội (Confessor), Thày cả (Priest), etc.
3.3.1.3. Characteristics of action or gesture in the religious ceremony:
In the Catholic ceremony, there are gestures accompanied by words and symbolic
gestures, e.g.: Ăn năn đền tội (contrition and penitence), ăn năn tội (contrition)
3.3.1.4. Characteristics of target audience of the religious ceremony:
The supreme object of Catholic ceremony is the God. Besides, Blessed Virgin
Mary and saints are also sometimes targeted, e.g.: Chúa Dêu Cha (God the Father), Đức
Mẹ (Blessed Virgin Mary), etc.
3.3.1.5. Characteristics of places where religious ceremony is held:
Places of worship, training establishments, residence places, etc. of each religion
have different characteristics, e.g: nhà thờ (church), nhà chung (common house), etc.
3.3.1.6. Characteristics of material elements in the religious ceremony:
The material elements in the Catholic ceremonies are always symbolic, for
example: Scent of fire symbolizes the prayer that radiates in front of the face of God, etc.
3.3.1.7. Characteristic of time of the religious ceremony:
The Catholic worship of is arranged to be spread out to the rhythm of time,
called the liturgical time, e.g.: giờ kinh sáng (morning prayer hour), Tuần Thánh (Holy
week) mùa Chay (Lent), Năm thánh (Holy year), etc.
3.3.1.8. Characteristic of spiritual level in the religious ceremony:
12
We have identified the Catholic denomination words on the basis of the
characteristics of the spiritual level in the religious ceremonies, such as: sốt mến (lovely),
sốt sắng (eager), sảng sót (fail)...
3.3.2. Characteristics of classification based on semantics of Catholic words
Based on the semantic content of lexical units, we have classified semantic
categories as shown in Table 3.6. below:
Catholic words by semantic categories
Group of
words
Liturgy Philosophical
and ideological
concepts
Designations
of God and
saints
Organizational
structure,
dignitaries
Normal
Total
Quantity 460 280 146 169 77 1132
Ratio 40.64% 24.73% 12.90% 14.93% 6.80% 100%
3.3.2.1. Liturgical and popular ethics words: occupy the highest proportion with
460/1132 units (40.64%), e.g.: Alleluia, Amen, ăn năn cách trọn (contrition), etc.
3.3.2.2. Words referring to the Catholic philosophical and ideological
concepts: 169/1132 units (14.93%), such as: Anh sáng (light), Ba thù (Three enemies),
Bảy mối tội đầu (Seven capital sins), etc.
3.3.2.3. Designations of God and saints: 146/1132 words, accounting for 12.90%
of the total number of studied words, e.g.: Ba Ngôi (Trinity) Chúa Dêu Cha (God the
Father), Tổng lãnh thiên thần (Archangel), etc.
3.3.2.4. Words indicating organizational structure and positions in the Catholic
Church: 280/1132 words, accounting for 24.73%, e.g.: Y-ghê (The Church), Địa phận
(Diocese), Giáo xứ (Parish), etc.
3.3.2.5. Common words used in the Catholic communion: 77/1132 words,
(accounting for 6.80%), for example: Ăn lễ (Enjoy the feast), Ăn năn trở lại (Contrition
and return), etc.
3.4. Sub-conclusion
In terms of structure, the Catholic words in the prayer books are structured
according to the Vietnamese word construction methods, including single words,
13
compound words and denomination combinations. The compound words accounting for
the highest proportion (77.74%). The compounding method helps to borrow and create
words to meet the needs of the Catholic communion in Viet Nam.
The thesis has found that: the Indo-European originated single words accounts for
the highest proportion (50.52%). These are original single words, denoting magnitude of
direct borrowing from these languages. In contrast, compound words and denomination
combinations of Native Vietnamese and hybrid compounds which account for a high rate
(more than 48%) are created by the method of constructing Vietnamese words to create
derivative words.
In terms of semantics, the thesis has found 8 fundamental characteristics as the
basis for denomination and 5 semantic categories of the Catholic words in the studied
prayers.
Chapter 4: CATHOLIC WORDS IN DAILY VIETNAMESE LANGUAGE
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Impacts of Vietnamization of the Catholic loan words
4.2.1. Influence of Vietnamese structure on Catholic loan words in terms of
phonetics and writing:
These impacts include monosyllabicization, e.g.: Deus (God) – Dêu, etc. ; adding
tones, e.g.: Cruz – Câu rút (the Cross), etc.; Vietnamizing consonant combinations,
e.g.: Bispo - Vítvồ; Vietnamizing vowel components: nasal vowel is processed into “ông”
or “ong”, e.g.: Atrição /atrisõ/ - Ăn năn tội a-tri-song; Bênção - Phép Biên-song
4.2.2. Influence of Vietnamese structure on Catholic loan words in terms of
semantics
We have realized that there are words whose religious meaning remains
unchanged, for example: Cha xứ (Pastor), đất thánh (holy land), Thiên Chúa (God),
Dòng (Order), etc.; but there are also ones whose religious meaning is changed, for
example: Xưng tội (Confession), which is a Catholic jargon, meaning “an act with which
a layman confesses to a priest in a religious ceremony to have his/her sins forgiven” has
14
been transformed into “self-confessing to others (not in a religious ceremony and not for
being forgiven”.
4.3. Involvement of the Catholic words in national language of Viet Nam
through Vietnamese literatures
4.3.1. Involvement of the Catholic words in national language of Viet Nam
through Vietnamese folk verses and proverb
4.3.1.1. Involvement of the Catholic words in folk verses and proverb describing
working and production activities: Sentences with Catholic characteristics can be easily
recognized.
Lễ Rosa thì tra hạt bí
Lễ Các thánh thì đánh bí ra
(Apply the squash seeds in Rosa ceremony
Dig the squash plants for growing in All Saints Day)
4.3.1.2. Involvement of the Catholic words in folk verses and proverb concerning
love, marriage, family
Amen, lạy Đức Chúa Trời
Xin cho bên Đạo, bên Đời lấy nhau.
(Amen, Oh my God
Please let the christian and the gentile get married.)
4.3.1.3. Involvement of the Catholic words in folk verses and proverb concerning
religious living
Có thực mới vực được Đạo. (Fine words butter no parsnip.)
Đi Đạo lấy gạo mà ăn. (Follow Catholics to get rice.)
4.3.1.4. Involvement of the Catholic words in folk verses and proverb concerning
the living, society and how to treat others
Em như một đóa hoa đào
Mẹ cha muốn phước bắt vào nhà tu
Trăm nghìn lạy Chúa Giêsu
Nhà tu đừng hóa nhà tù giam em.
15
(You look like a bunch of peach blossom. Forced to stay at monastery by your
father with the hope of all the best for you.But, God Jesus! Please don’t turn the
monastery to a prison).
We can see that the words that are Catholic jargons in the above fork verses have
transcended the boundary of the liturgical language and entered the language of everyday
life at a pretty high level of “non- jargonization” of folk verses - proverbs.
4.3.2. Involvement of the Catholic words in national language of Viet Nam
through written literatures
Through studying a number of selected works, we have found that the Catholic
jargons enters the national language of Viet Nam in various aspects: Words referring to
hierarchy, titles in the Catholics; words referring to the system of administrative and
corporate levels in the Catholics; words referring to the system of the Catholic rituals
and liturgies; Words referring to the system of religious facilities of the Catholic
communion; Catholic words referring to Catholic objects; Catholic words referring to the
system of Catholic philosophical and ideological concepts in daily Vietnamese language;
words referring to the common activities of the Catholic communion.
4.4. Sub-conclusion
Based on the organic relationship between language and religion, we have
mentioned the activities of the Catholic words in daily Vietnamese language, in the
following aspects:
The impact of structure of Vietnamese on the Catholic loan words is called the
process of Vietnamization of Indo-European originated Catholic words. These words are
affected on all three aspects: phonetics, semantics and writing.
The active participation of the Catholic words in the daily Vietnamese language is
the process of “non-jargonizing” the Catholic words. The Catholic words that are
considered jargons, were used only in a communion of special communication, has
transcended their own boundary and transformed into the national language of Viet Nam,
contributing to fulfilling the communication mission of the national language of Viet
Nam, because they are all part of the Vietnamese language in general. This trend
16
indicates that the Catholic community in Vietnam is not a closed community but an open
one like its Catholic (universal) nature.
CONCLUSION
There are few studies on the Catholic words in Vietnamese language
currently. This thesis is in such a general context, so there are definitely many
limitations. Targeted at the Catholic words in the prayer books of the Dominican order
Dioceses in Viet Nam, we firstly wish to provide an overview of this group of words,
then reflect partial characteristics of the Catholic words in Viet Nam which have not been
included in many studies. For that purpose and with specialized methodologies, including
surveying text, and linguistic description, and with the tactics such as: functional
analysis, structure analysis, the semantic constituent analysis, reference analysis, statistics
and classification, etc., we have surveyed and identified lexical units of the Catholic
words in distinction with other classes of words; classified and described the linguistic
characteristics of the Catholic lexical units; studied developments of these Catholic words
in the daily Vietnamese language in general. Specifically, the thesis has reached the
following findings:
1. On the theoretical basis of semantic vocabulary in general and semantic
vocabulary in relation to religion, the thesis has located the Catholic words in the prayer
books of the Dominican order Diocese in particular, Catholic words in Viet Nam in
general in the Vietnamese system. This positioning is important because it shows the
position and presence of a particular class of religious words in Vietnamese language that
no one has done before. This positioning initially shapes or identifies characteristics and
criteria for the study object not to be confused with the words of other classes and scopes.
2. Under the diachronic perspective, the Catholic words in the prayer books of the
Dominican order dioceses in Viet Nam in particular, the general Vietnamese Catholic
words have undergone a process of formation and development associated with the
process of introduction and development of the Catholic communion in Viet Nam. The
thesis has studied and identified two ways to form this group of words: borrowing and
creating new words.
17
The borrowing is an important way, accounting for the highest proportion (about
78%) of lexical units, due to the need to spread the religious messages which requires
introduction of Catholic concepts into Viet Nam which were not available in Viet Nam
before that. The borrowing takes place in two aspects: Borrowing both form and content
or borrowing content only. The first borrowing results in words that are received in their
original and phonetical transcription modes. The second borrowing results in words that
are received through calque. The majority of Catholic words borrowed in Vietnamese can
be traced to deep roots because the Catholic vocabulary system in general is based on the
three languages associated with the formation of this religion, the Hebrew, Greek
and Latin, of which, Hebrew and Greek are the languages of the Bibles, Greek
and Latin are the languages of the Catholic theology, philosophy and liturgy. In
particular, Latin is the canonical language of the Catholic Communion. In addition, the
thesis has also identified the direct origin of Vietnamese Catholic words that are
intermediate languages of missionaries such as Portuguese and Spanish based on similar
readings of their lexical units. Because of the importance of Sino-Vietnamese reading in
the Vietnamese, the thesis has also discussed this type of units. We have also compared
the Catholic words with a Sino-Vietnamese reading to Chinese Catholic words to see
their connections. The comparison findings are surprising, this word class of two
neighboring languages has almost no relation to each other. This is consistent with the
independence in the history of Catholic evangelization into China and into Viet Nam.
Appearance of the way of creating new words to form a class of Catholic words in
the prayer books of the Dominnican order Dioceses in Viet Nam partly shows the
autonomy, maturity and depth of the Catholic integration in Viet Nam. During the
development process, the Catholic community in Viet Nam has created new entities and
concepts, which results in failure to satisfy by borrowing, and causes the indigenous
community to create new names to identify them. The ways to creating new words can be
divided into two types of structures: The one that uses new forms to express new
content, including creating a new sound shell to name a newly formed concept,
compounding to create new words, shortening to create new words, both shortening and
compounding to create new words, etc.; And, the one that uses existing forms
18
and materials to express new content, and known as the method of creating new words by
meaning development. For the Catholic words in the studied prayers, the thesis has
shown that creation of new words in this way is mainly to add new meaning to an
existing word in Vietnamese, which can be a common term, but also a jargon of a certain
religion or belief used in the Vietnamese language.
Put the study findings concerning the ways of formation of the Catholic words in
the prayer books of the Dominican order Dioceses in Viet Nam in comparison with the
Buddhist jargon system in Viet Nam in particular and Vietnamese language in general,
we have found that in addition to the similarities in the ways of formation, methods of
borrowing if borrowing, methods of construction if creating new words, there is a major
difference in the origin of the lending languages and usage level of words with Sino-
Vietnamese reading. For example, for origins of the lending languages, the borrowed
Buddhist jargons primarily originated from Asian languages, the borrowed Catholic
jargons, in contrast, mainly originated from Afro-Asiatic and Indo-European languages,
such as Jewish, Greek, Latin, Portuguese, Spanish, etc. There have been few studies so
far concerning the Vietnamese loan words, of course including words borrowed from
Buddhism and Catholicism, in terms of borrowing between Vietnamese language and
Sanskrit through the Buddhist vocabulary system, between Vietnamese language and
Latin, Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, Italian, etc. through the Catholic vocabulary
system; Regarding the level of using words with a Sino-Vietnamese reading: while the
general assumption believes that the Sino-Vietnamese words account for 60-80% of the
Vietnamese words, in Buddhism, according to Le Thi Lam, Sino-Vietnamese words
dominate 98.8% [60, p.142], the survey findings show that these words onl
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