Verbal process in English, compared with vietnamese

296 53.7 Official speaking verbs of directives Order; command; Implore, command; direct, order; Request say. 450 18.6 Official speaking Swear, assure, assert, pledge, 66 2.7 7 verbs verbs of commissives promise, refuse, say Official speaking verbs of declarations pronounce, accuse, proclaim, announce say 25 1.0 Official speaking verbs of exxpressives console, argue, criticize, mock, abuse, nag, shout, scold, scream, sound, praise, squeak, complain, reprimand, extol, say 152 6.3 The predicators of verbal process denoted by unofficial - speaking verbs The predicators of verbal process denoted by words of speaking mode Whisper, grumble, soft, mutter, incessant, drawl 232 9.6 The predicators of verbal process denoted by verbs of physical, psychological – action with words. Think, sigh, laugh, shrug, stare, beam, stroke, hesitate, clap, surmise, nod, eye 108 4.4 The predicators of verbal process denoted by verbs of animal’s sound Bark, bleat, cackle, chirp, cluck, coo, growl, hiss, purr, roar, snarl 82 3.7 Total 2411 100.0 2.2.1. Predicator in English verbal process 2.2.1.1. Predicator in English verbal process denoted by official speaking verbs 1/ Predicator in English verbal process represented by speaking verbs of representatives As shown in Table 2.1, through the survey, we have noted 1296/2411 times that the predicator in English verbal process is represented by speaking verbs of representatives, accounting for 53.7%. In English, with the characteristics of performatives, speaking verbs must include the following words: say, told, inform, tell, remind, report, ... (verbs with repetitive content/ property). These are verbs that are themselves more inclined to representieves. In terms of grammatical characteristics, it can be seen that speaking verbs of representatives in general, speaking verbs in verbal process in particular, have the following characteristics: In terms of position: The most common position of the predicator is after Sayer and before Receiver /Target. In many cases, 8 speaking verbs in representatives remain at the end of the sentence. The Receiver/ Targer is often missing in this case. Functionally: In terms of syntax, the predicate is the main element in a sentence, so it specifies the syntax position and syntax function of the other elements in the sentence. The element that is most closely related to the predicate (which is done by speaking verbs) is the subject (usually by the Sayer). The element governed by predicate is complement (usually by Receiver/ Target and Verbiage). In addition, there may also appear other components due to the provisions of the context of the situation which is the object and the adverb (usually by the circumstance). In terms of the semantic characteristics: One of the characteristics that distinguishes verbal process from other processes is the nature of different relationships in the verbal process. Verbal process as said above, includes Sayer, Verbiage, Receiver, Target and the predicator. The participants in the verbal process are related to each other. For the speaking verbs in representavies, in terms of the meaning structure, the predicators in verbal process with the representative meaning usually have the following structures: 1/ Sayer thinks that the verbiage that he/she knows is true. 2/ Sayer thinks that Receiver/ Target did not know / did not know enough about the verbiage. 3/ Sayer thinks that the verbiage is beneficial. 4/ Sayer thinks that TNT / ĐNT wants to know the content of NT 5/ Sayer says the verbiage to Receiver/ Target. One of the important characteristics of verbal process in general, and English verbal process in particular, is the feature of closely co-locating between verbal process and circumstance. I'll tell him about the baby. (If Tomorrow Comes, p.61) I tell him about the baby Sayer Process: vebal Receiver Circumstance In the above example, the verbiage about the baby is also the circumstance. Thus, the circumstance is related to verbal process, which is the equivalent component of Sayer. In English, the circumstances are usually expressed by prepositions such as about, concerning, with reference to .. An important feature of verbal process that is different from other processes, is its projection potentiality. Like mental process, 9 verbal process also has the potentiality to evolve into complex sequences through projection ability. However, the mental process projects the ideas and the thoughts, verbal process projects the words. A statement includes a projection of verbal process and the projection may belong to any processes. I'm--- I'm Tracy Whitney She said Mental process Sayer Verbal process Madame went out this morning Pickens, the butler said Material process Sayer Verbal process Amy said I love you, Tracy. Will you be my mother Sayer Verbal process Mental process 2/ Predicator in verbal process represented by speaking verbs of directives As shown in Table 2.1, through the survey, we have a statistics of 450/2411 times that predicator in verbal process is represented by speaking verbs of directives, accounting for 18.6%. In English, the predicator in this group includes the following words: implore; command; direct, order, ... In terms of grammatical characteristics, predicator in verbal process represented by speaking verbs of directives have the following features: In terms of position: The most common position of the predicator is after Sayer (as the subject) and before Receiver/ Target (as the object). In the case of missing Receiver/ Target, speaking verb of directives stands at the end of the sentence. In terms of function: The predicator of verbal process acts as a predicate in the sentence, so it specifies the syntax position and the syntactic function of the other elements in the sentence such as the subject (usually undertaken by Sayer), complements (usually by Receiver/ Target and Verbiage). In terms of semantic characteristics, the predicator in verbal process represented by speaking verb of directives in English usually has the following meaning structures: 1/ Sayer thinks that he can say Verbiage to Receiver/ Target. 10 2/ Sayer thinks that Receiver/ Target needs/ wants to know Verbiage. 3/ Sayer says Receiver wants Receiver/ Target to perform a Verbiage. 4/ Sayer thinks that Receiver/ Target will implement what Saye says. 3/ Predicator in verbal process represented by speaking verbs of commissives As shown in Table 2.1, through the survey, we have a statistics of 66/2411 occurrences that predicator in verbal process is represented by the speaking verbs of commissives, accounting for 2.7%. Speaking verbs of commissives in English are verbs such as swear, commitment, assert, pledge, promise, ... In terms of grammatical characteristics, speaking verbs of commissives have the following characteristics: In terms of position: like other speaking verbs in verbal process, the most common position of commissives is after Sayer (as the subject) and before Receiver/ Target (as complements). In terms of function: The predicator acts as a predicate in the sentence, so it specifies the syntax position and the syntactic function of the other elements in the sentence such as the subject (usually undertaken by Sayer), complements (usually by Receiver/ Target and Verbiage). In terms of semantic characteristics, the predicator in verbal process of commissives usually has the following structures: 1 / Sayer thinks that Receiver/ Target is thinking about Verbiage 2 / Sayer says that Receiver/ Target is not sure about Verbiage 3/ Sayer thinks that he/she need/ must make Receiver/ Target believe in Verbiage 4/ Sayer asserts Verbiage with Receiver/ Target 4/ Predicator in verbal process represented by speaking verbs of declarations As shown in Table 2.1, through the survey, we have a statistics of 25/2411 occurrences that predicator in verbal process is represented by the speaking verbs of declarations, accounting for 1.0%. Speaking verbs of declarations in English are verbs: pronounce, accuse, proclaim, 11 announce, ... In terms of grammatical characteristics, speaking verbs of declarations in English have the following characteristics: In terms of position: speaking verbs of declarations in English can stand at the following positions: at the end of the sentence; between sentences; after Sayer and before Receiver/ Target. The position after Sayer and before Receiver/ Target is the most common position for a predicator in the verbal process. In terms of semantic characteristics: in the speaking verb of declarations, about the meaning structure, the predicator in verbal process usually have the following meaning structures: 1/ Sayer thinks that Receiver/ Target wants Sayer to say a Verbiage 2/ Sayer tells Receiver/ Target about Verbiage 3/ Sayer wants Receiver/ Target to think about Verbiage 4/ Sayer says that after the Verbiage is told, the content of Verbiage is done 5/ Predicator in verbal process represented by speaking verbs of expressives As shown in Table 2.1, through the survey, we have a statistics of 152/2411 times English predicator in verbal process is represented by the speaking verbs of expressives, accounting for 6.3%. In English, the speaking verbs of expressives are console, argue, criticize, mock, abuse, nag, shout, scold, scream, sound, praise, squeak, complain, reprimand, extol ... In terms of grammatical characteristics, it can be seen that speaking verbs of expressives have the following characteristics: In terms of position: Unlike verbs from other groups, speaking verbs of expressives do not need Receiver/ Target. Therefore, speaking verbs of expressives only need to stand before or after Sayer. In terms of function: The predicator makes the predicate in the sentence. The predicate is capable of defining the syntax function and syntactic function of the other elements in the sentence. Therefore, the predicate has a close relationship with the subject and is related to other components such as complements and adverbs. In terms of semantic characteristics: speaking verbs of expressives, about the meaning structure, usually have the following structures: 1/ Sayer has feelings about Verbiage 12 2/ Sayer wants to express their feelings 3/ Sayer expresses the feeling to Receiver/ Target. 2.2.1.2. English predicator in verbal process represented by unofficial speaking verbs 1/ English predicator in verbal process denoted by words of speaking mode As shown in Table 2.1, through the survey, we have a statistics of 232/2411 occurrences English predicator in verbal process is denoted by words of speaking mode, accounting for 9.6%. 2/ English predicator in verbal process denoted by the verb of physical, psychological action with words. As shown in Table 2.1, through the survey, we have a statistics of 108/2411 times that English predicator in verbal process is denoted by the verb of physical, psychological action with words, accounting for 4.4% . Verbs of physical, psychological action with words are words of human activity. But not all verbs of physical, psychological action are also capable of being used as the predicator in verbal process. To become the predicator in verbal process, physical or psychological verbs have conditions, properties and characteristics close to speaking verbs. Basically, verbs of physical, psychological action have the following characteristics: In our opinion, the group of physical action verbs can be divided into the following sub-groups: 1/ The verbs describing the action leading to physical changes; 2/ The verbs of the body movement coming with words: sigh, laugh, stroke, beam , urmise ... 3 / English predicator in verbal process denoted by verbs of animal’s sound As shown in Table 2.1, through the survey, we have recorded 82/2411 occurrences that English predicator in verbal process is denoted by verbs of animal’s sound, accounting for 3.7%. In fact, verbs of animal’s sound can be categorized into four subtypes: verbs describing insect sound, bird sound, animal sound, and fish sound. In these four categories, the sounds of birds and animals can be used to convey the speech of people. In terms of transliteration mechanism, the sound of birds in reality is usually high, light, with rhym and melody. These positive traits are used to describe the small, upbeat, expressive speech of Sayer. The sound of birds in English has words such as coo, gurg ... Unlike the sound of birds that is usually soft and frank; the sounds that animals from the zoo's family can produce are heavier, stronger and more 13 intense. Therefore, if the sound of a bird is often used to express a positive human affection, the sound of an animal expresses the negative sentiment of humans, primarily of Sayer. Therefore, these typical speaking actions often show negative politeness, and Sayer is not respected. 2.2.2. Predicator in verbal process in Vietnamese We, in this part, would like to present the properties of the predicator of the verbal process in Vietnamese which is expressed by official speaking verbs (predicator of the verbal process in Vietnamese expressed by speaking verbs of representatives; predicator of the verbal process in Vietnamese expressed by speaking verbs of directives; predicator of the verbal process in Vietnamese expressed by speaking verbs of commissives; predicator of the verbal process in Vietnamese expressed by speaking verbs of declarations; predicator of the verbal process in Vietnamese expressed by speaking verbs of expressives) and predicator of the verbal process in Vietnamese which is expressed by unofficial speaking verbs (predicator of the verbal process; predicator in the verbal process in Vietnamese expressed by physical and psychological action with words; predicator in the verbal process in Vietnamese expressed by animals’ sound) 2.2.3. Comparing the predicator in verbal process in English and in Vietnamese 2.2.3.1. Similarities There are many things in common between the predicator of verbal process in English and in Vietnamese. Basically, the quantity and names of groups and sub-groups of speaking verbs in English are similar to those in Vietnamese. English and Vietnamese both have five official speaking verb groups and the sub-groups are also alike. According to a survey, the position of speaking verbs in verbal process is normally after Sayer and before Receiver/target. However, speaking verbs of expressives and commissives often do not go along with Receiver. Therefore, the position of speaking verbs in this case is at the end of the sentence or after Sayer. One of the important characteristic of verbal process in general is closely co-locating between verbal process and circumstance. This characteristic appears in both verbal process in English and in Vietnamese. Another indispensable characteristics that used to distinguish verbal process from other processes is the projection potential. A statement can include a 14 projection of the verbal process and the projection that may belong to any processes. Projection in verbal process may be of extraction or notification. Regarding to survey, there are verbs that can be projected both above kinds, and there are verbs that can be projected one of the above kinds. In terms of position, speaking verbs are often followed by sayer and preceded by Receiver/Target, or after Sayer and before that in English and rằng in Vietnamese. In terms of function, predicator in both English and Vietnamese play the role of predicate which has close relationship with subject and complement. In terms of meaning, verbal process in English and in Vietnamese includes of sayer, verbiage, Receiver/target and predicator. Participants in verbal process are in a relationship. 2.2.3.2. Differences Verbal process with predicator which are official speaking verbs in English accounts for less percentage than that in Vietnamese (82.3% in English, 83.6% in Vietnamese). On the contrary, the percentage of verbal process with predicator which are unofficial speech act verbs in English (17.7%) is higher than that in Vietnamese (16.4%). This shows that English people use a wider variety of unofficial lexis than Vietnamese people. At the same time, Vietnamese people has tendency to use more official speech act verbs than English people. Regarding to grammar, both English and Vietnamese speaking verbs can combine with elements preceding and following them. Nevertheless, Vietnamese speaking verbs can combine with elements before and after them to form a verb phrase, while English speaking verbs can only combine with elements following them to form a verb phrase. In combination with Sayer, predicator in Vietnamese can only be preceded by Sayer, never followed by Sayer. However, predicator in English can go before or after Sayer. Predicator in English can be followed by Sayer, especially in case of having no accompanied Recepient/Target (said Harry, said Hermione, said Ron, etc.) When verbs as predicators are accompanied by words to particularize verbs, they can go after or before sayer (Hagrid called back happily; said Ron quietly, etc.) Besides, predicators in English can go after Sayer (Uncle Vernon said hoarsely; she said; Sirius said, etc.) or stand between sayer and Recepient/target (We've 15 asked Charles; he told Tracy; the policeman told her, etc.). Predicators in Vietnamese can only be preceded by Sayer in case of with or without Receiver (Tôi nói, tôi nói với cô ấy, etc.). There is no way that predicators in Vietnamese go after Sayer. Regarding to expression form, verbiage in English is distinguished from predicator by a comma. While in Vietnamese, verbiage is differentiated from other elements by colon. Therefore, the position of speaking verbs in English can be right after verbiage while this case does not appear in Vietnamese. 2.3. Sub-conclusion Through research, surveys of verbal process in English, we draw some following conclusions: For predicator in verbal process denoted by official speaking verbs, the highest proportion is the official speaking verbs of representatives. For each verbal group, there is a different basic content, so it is also necessary to use different speaking verb. The basic content that speaking verbs of representatives must perform is to inform insights about things that have been, or will happen in reality. Verbs of this covenant group have the same meaning as a commitment to do the promised things, affirm that they will do something according to the agreed and committed contents. The speaking verbs of declarations is usually performed in a formal ceremony. In addition to verbal process with official speaking verbs, there are predicators which are unofficial speaking verb. Although they are not official speaking verbs in verbal process but they are used with the meaning of speaking, words of speaking mode, physical action, and verbs of animal’s sound. Official speaking verbs and unofficial speaking verbs surveyed are typical, only to be surveyed in a limited range of literary works, because it is difficult to fully list and describe fully, in fact, all of these speaking verbs, especially unofficial speaking verbs. The study of unofficial speaking verbs also shows that Vietnamese and English are very delicate, productive and flexible in communication. Depending on the context and mood, they choose suitable verbal verbs. 16 CHAPTER 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF PARTICIPANTS IN ENGLISH VERBAL PROCESS, COMPARED WITH VIETNAMESE 3.1. Overview of participants in the structure of English verbal process In the full form, sentences with English verbal process are structured: Sayer - Predicator - Receiver (Target) - Verbiage or Verbiage - Sayer - Predicator - Target However, there may be the following shortened forms: Sayer + Predicator; Verbiage + Predicator + Receiver/ Target; Sayer + Predicator + Verbiage; Predicator +/- Receiver/ Target +/- Verbiage 3.2. Characteristics of participants in English and Vietnamese verbal processes 3.2.1. Characteristics of participants in English verbal process Obligatory participants: Firstly, in terms of meaning, verbiage in verbal process may belong to all different processes in experience world. The basic feature of English verbal process is the verbiage which covers all different verbal process. The content of verbiage in verbal process may mention all process kinds in experience world. Other processes may be mentioned and expressed in verbal process as verbiage. Basically, verbal process is a double process including verbal process and somewhat X process (of verbiage). It is only verbal process that has this feature. Secondly, in terms of grammar: regarding to word form, verbiage in English verbal process may be expressed by words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs. Regarding to the role of grammar in sentences, speeches always have “thing that is spoken” which is call verbiage. Verbiage always goes along with speech content which is predicator, “thing that predicator wants to express”. Therefore, in terms of grammar, verbiage adds meaning to predicator and plays the role of complement in a sentence. Thirdly, in terms of pragmatics (regarding to the function of 17 expressing speech act), verbiage may express these following speech acts: expressives, declarations, requests, promises, vows, etc. Fourthly, in terms of position, the normal position of verbiage in English is before sayer or at the beginning of a sentence Sayer: Regarding to meaning, sayer in verbal process can be divided into two main groups: 1) Words used to name directly/indirectly and to address; 2) Words used as metaphorical conversion meaning. Regarding to structure, verbiage can be words or phrases. In terms of position, verbiage can stand at the beginning, in the middle or at the end in structure process. In terms of grammar, verbiage often plays the role of the subject in a sentence or clause. Regarding to category, verbiage is people. Receiver and Target: In terms of meaning, Receiver and target are usually human. In terms of quantity, sayer is mainly a person while Receiver and target are various in quantity. Receiver/Target can be not only a person but also many people. In terms of position, Receiver and target appear flexibly in process structure. This is different from other participants which have independent and obvious positions in verbal process. 3.2.2. Characteristics of participants in Vietnamese verbal process We, in this part, would like to present the characteristics of verbiage, sayer, Receiver/target in Vietnamese verbal process. 3.3. Comparing participants of English verbal process and Vietnamese verbal process 3.3.1. Similarities Verbal processes in English and in Vietnamese both have participants that are sayer, Receiver/ target, verbiage. Additionally, both verbal processes have other extended participants. Verbiage in English and Vietnamese verbal process may belong to all different process in experience world, which means the content of verbiage in verbal process may mention all process in the experience world. Verbal process in English and in Vietnamese are double process including verbal process and X process. This X process belongs to verbiage expressed in verbal process. As a result, verbiage may be 18 material, relative, mental or verbal process. Verbiage may be expressed by words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs; may express many different speech acts like expressives, declarations, requests, promises, vows, etc. In terms of position, verbiage in both verbal process may stand at many different positions in a sentence: at the beginning, in the middle or at the end. Sayers in both English and Vietnamese verbal process are structured as words or phrases. In terms of word form, sayer in these two verbal processes is often a pronoun or a noun. Besides, sayer may stand at many positions in the sentence expressing verbal process, and play the role of the subject in that sentence. In terms of meaning, sayer in English and Vietnamese verbal process may be words used to name directly/indirectly and to addr